, 2007 and Behrens et al., 2008). The value of a choice should be updated when the choice is made and the reward received is better or

worse than anticipated. An organism might revise its estimate of the choice’s value by a small or a considerable degree each time it witnesses a prediction error. The optimal degree of value updating, however, ought to be a function of the speed with which the reward environment is changing. If the reward environment Selleckchem VX 770 is volatile and changing rapidly then it makes sense to update valuations substantially as each prediction error is observed. By contrast, in a more stable environment, dramatic revaluation with each prediction error is less optimal and it is preferable to base estimates of an action’s value on a longer history of reward events. The impact that volatility has on action valuation is associated with activity changes in the ACC sulcus region

implicated in reward-guided action selection (Behrens et al., 2007, Behrens et al., 2008 and Jocham et al., 2009) (cluster 4, Figure 2A). By contrast, the impact that volatility has on evaluation of other people is associated with changes in the adjacent ACC gyrus (Behrens et al., 2008) (cluster 7, Figure 2A). GSK-3 assay Pharmacological manipulations that alter the importance ascribed to other individuals activate a similar ACC gyral region (Baumgartner et al., 2008). Information about the value of one’s own actions and information about the value of information from

other individuals may be brought together in adjacent ACC regions because both types of information are often important guides to what choices we should make next. There is also evidence that other parts of the ACC are concerned with the control of autonomic activity in the body; different regions within the ACC may be concerned with different aspects of autonomic control or autonomic activity in different body regions (Critchley, aminophylline 2005). Although a discussion of autonomic control is beyond the scope of the current review it is important to note that autonomic changes may be instigated during reward-guided decision-making and autonomic feedback may contribute to the appraisal of a choice. The vmPFC/mOFC region includes a variety of distinct if interconnected anatomical areas and it is likely that they make distinct contributions to valuation. Localizing BOLD signal changes in this region is difficult because of the proximity of the sinuses but nevertheless there is already emerging evidence of regional differences in function. Grabenhorst et al., 2008 asked their subjects either to rate the pleasantness of temperature stimuli or to make a decision about whether the stimulus should be repeated.