Thus, the combination of both assays is necessary for a better characterization of the antioxidant activity of a given sample. On the other hand, ATR presented a pro-oxidant capacity in a lipid-rich system, enhancing TBARS formation induced by AAPH incubation. In assays to evaluate the antioxidant potential against NO and H2O2, ATR also demonstrated to enhance the production of such species, acting as a pro-oxidant molecule. Nonetheless, ATR increased Selleckchem Stem Cell Compound Library NO production only at the higher concentration

tested, while other concentrations demonstrated to be innocuous. On the other hand, concentrations as low as 0.01 μg/ml were able to increase H2O2 production in vitro. We also observed that ATR presented no activity towards hydroxyl radical production or scavenging. NO exerts important physiological effects, such as vasoconstriction regulation and modulation of pro-inflammatory processes (Mollace et al., 2005, Salvemini et al., 2006 and Salvemini et al., 1996). In elevated concentrations, NO may interact with superoxide radicals to generate the

strong oxidizing agent peroxynitrite (ONOO−). Peroxynitrite diffuses through membranes and interacts with methionine side chains in proteins, sulphydryl groups, aromatic rings from tyrosine and guanine and generates nitrogen dioxide, which is an initiator of lipoperoxidation (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2007). Thus, it is generally believed that an increase in superoxide radical formation both destroys the biological action of NO by promoting its removal ATM inhibitor and intensifies the formation of peroxynitrite (Salvemini et al., 2006). We observed here that ATR can act as a superoxide scavenger, and thus limit the action of this reactive species. Besides, it is postulated that during acute and chronic inflammation, superoxide production is enhanced to levels above the cleaning capacity of endogenous SOD enzymes, resulting in endothelial cell damage and increased microvascular permeability, up-regulation Vorinostat datasheet of adhesion molecules such as ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule 1) and P-selectin (through mechanisms not yet defined) that

recruit neutrophils to sites of inflammation, autocatalytic destruction of neurotransmitters and hormones such as noradrenaline and adrenaline, lipid peroxidation and oxidation, DNA damage and activation of PARP [poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase] (Salvemini et al., 2006). Superoxide removal by endogenous SOD and ATR would avoid such effects and also allow endogenous and ATR-induced NO to promote the activation of cycloxygenase and subsequent release of beneficial prostaglandins (Mollace et al., 2005 and Salvemini et al., 2006). The potential of ATR as an antiinflammatory and antinociceptive agent has been investigated based on reports of the utilization of lichen preparations for this purpose (Bugni et al., 2009).