De igual modo, os 6 doentes classificados como HAI provável ou definitiva usando os Critérios Afatinib mw Clássicos e que obtiveram pontuação inferior a 6 com os Critérios Simplificados apresentaram características com pontuação inferior ou não identificadas por estes últimos, tais como o sexo feminino (n = 6), doença autoimune concomitante (n = 1), gamaglobulina acima do limite superior da normalidade e valor de IgG normal (n = 2), autoanticorpos com título elevado (n = 3), relação entre a fosfatase alcalina e a aspartato aminotransferase inferior a 1,5 (n = 3) e consumo

de álcool inferior a 25 g/d (n = 6). A natureza e a frequência das Navitoclax research buy características que resultaram na subida ou descida da pontuação no Sistema de Classificação Clássico e que explicam as discrepâncias no diagnóstico quando aplicados os Critérios Classificados estão detalhadas na tabela 6. Os resultados foram semelhantes aos apresentados no estudo de Czaja, em que os 3 fatores mais frequentemente implicados na discrepância dos diagnósticos foram o sexo feminino (no estudo de Czaja, 16 dos 23 casos discrepantes),

autoanticorpos com título elevado Meloxicam (14 dos 23 casos) e a relação entre a fosfatase alcalina e a aspartato aminotransferase inferior a 1,5 (21 dos 23 casos discrepantes)10. Na nossa série, o consumo de álcool inferior a 25 g/d foi a segunda característica

mais frequente não identificada nos Critérios Simplificados. A percentagem de falsos negativos foi de 11% no estudo de Yeoman et al. e de 5% no de Czaja7 and 10. De facto, o que está descrito na literatura e que também pode ser inferido pelos resultados do nosso estudo, em que encontrámos 14% de falsos negativos (3 doentes com HAI provável e 3 com HAI definitiva pelos critérios clássicos), é que a sensibilidade dos CDS para o diagnóstico de HAI é bastante inferior à demonstrada pelos critérios clássicos (97 a 100%)8. O estudo retrospetivo de Yeoman et al. demonstrou elevada especificidade para os diagnósticos provável e definitivo em doentes com um curso não fulminante. No entanto, apesar de a sensibilidade permanecer alta para um diagnóstico provável, diminuiu para 70% para um diagnóstico definitivo7. No seu estudo, Czaja concluiu que tanto os critérios clássicos como os simplificados têm elevada sensibilidade e especificidade para o diagnóstico de HAI e que os CDS têm maior especificidade e previsibilidade.

In addition, most synaesthetes expressed difficulty in precisely locating the synaesthetic object in space or transferring its location onto a two-dimensional (2D) image (often Nutlin3a they provided generic descriptions like ‘it is low down’ or ‘it is in the middle’). Therefore, we categorised their descriptions about the spatial components of synaesthetic experiences into three main types (low, middle, and high) and coded them as an ordinal variable. After obtaining the data of number of pixels, brightness values, and location codings for each person, the

results were averaged across three instruments, giving us 20 data-points (10 notes × two repetitions) per synaesthete. The data were then averaged across synaesthetes and submitted to correlation analyses, relating auditory pitch (in Hz) to size, brightness, and spatial location. The results of the correlations are consistent with the apparent patterns from looking at the images: as Fig. 4a illustrates, the size of synaesthetic objects decreases when auditory pitch gets higher, as indexed by a significant negative correlation (Pearson’s r = −.79, p < .001). Fig. 4b shows a significant positive correlation that the brightness of synaesthetic colour gradually becomes greater as auditory pitch gets

higher (Pearson’s r = .76, p < .001). Finally, Fig. 4c shows that the location of synaesthetic objects elevates as pitch gets higher (Kandall's τ = .84, p < .001). In the questionnaire probing the subjective locus of synaesthetic experience, one of the seven synaesthetes indicated that her synaesthetic percepts appeared out in space. This individual also described BIRB 796 order seeing objects she was voluntarily imagining as ‘out in space’, rather than ‘in mind’s eye’. The other six synaesthetes reported seeing their synaesthetic objects in the mind’s eye. One of these six people

reported seeing imagined objects ‘out in space’, Alectinib mw another reported them as both in space and in mind’s eye, and the rest described imagined objects as appearing only in mind’s eye. Interestingly, although the six individuals chose ‘in the mind’s eye’ over ‘out in space’ for auditorily-induced synaesthetic images in the binary question, some of their descriptions raise questions about the appropriateness of the categorisation of ‘in the mind’s eye’ versus ‘out in space’. For example, one synaesthete added a description about his grapheme–colour synaesthesia suggesting it may be experienced in external space: ‘When I read texts, it’s projected over the letter or sort of floating just above the text.’, and two synaesthetes described their sound-induced synaesthetic images as ‘it’s like something in front of me’ and ‘it’s in my mind’s eye but with a strong spatial sense’. This implies that their synaesthetic percepts may not entirely be situated only in mind’s eye, and illustrate the difficulty in describing such an experience spatially.

CSF is mainly produced at the choroid plexus, where it is separated by blood circulation through the blood–CSF barrier. RGFP966 mouse It is produced at a flow-rate of approximately 500 mL/24 h [80] and its composition is strictly regulated by the selectivity of the BBB [79]. The CSF proteome is

for its most part (80%) composed of proteins derived from blood and, as in plasma, albumin and immunoglobulins represent approximately 70% of the total amount of CSF protein [81]. The remaining 20% of CSF proteins are produced in the brain, although they are rarely considered brain specific [80] and [82]. Since late stage HAT is characterized by a meningo-encephalitis [14] and [83] and that CSF examination is part of the current diagnostic workflow, the reasoning for looking for novel disease progression markers in this body fluid seems pertinent. Alterations in the protein content of CSF are of particular clinical utility for this website many neurological disorders. An increased protein concentration can be indicative of either a BBB dysfunction or an increased intrathecal synthesis of proteins.

The quotients of albumin (QAlb) and immunoglobulin (QIg) are used to evaluate and quantify this dysfunction [79], [80] and [82], and the latter can be particularly helpful to indicate an inflammatory process occurring in the brain [82] and [84]. The increased concentration of immunoglobulins in the CSF of late stage HAT patients, with IgM being the predominant class, has been known since the 1980s [85]. This observation agrees with the absence of the switch between IgM and IgG, and the low decay of CSF antibodies characteristic of

the humoral immune response in the brain [82]. More recently, it has been demonstrated that an increased fraction of IgM of intrathecal origin in S2 HAT patients [73] and [86] is indicative of the presence of a brain inflammatory SPTLC1 process not associated to damage of the BBB. IgM, and in particular those of intrathecal origin, are currently considered as the best alternative to a WBC count for staging T. b. gambiense HAT. A rapid agglutination test for the evaluation of IgM concentration in CSF has been developed (Latex/IgM) and a high correlation between the final Latex/IgM titer and intrathecal IgM production has been shown [87] and [88]. Despite this method has high accuracy for stage determination [88], strong enough evidence to support its introduction into clinical practice is still missing. Moreover, Latex/IgM exhibited limited utility for the evaluation of outcomes after treatment. Indeed, Latex/IgM combined with a WBC count accurately detected relapses at 18 months after treatment, but IgM normalized very slowly over time in cured patients [89] and [90].

0) were as follows: stage I, 2 patients (6.25%); stage II, 8 patients (25.0%); and stage III, 22 patients (68.75%). Table 1 shows details of the patients’ profiles. All patients underwent radical surgery. Most of the patients underwent a D2 lymphadenectomy (22 patients, 68.75%). D1 lymphadenectomy was performed in 10 patients (31.25%). All patients received adjuvant DCF chemotherapy after radical resection. Twenty-four patients (75%) completed the planned six cycles of treatment, and 8 patients (25%) stopped chemotherapy

Carfilzomib datasheet because of toxicity (n = 7) or disease progression (n = 1) ( Table 2). The median number of cycles received was 5.3 (range = 1-6). Median follow-up was 29.8 months (range = 6.0-61.0). No patients were lost to follow-up. selleck kinase inhibitor Sixteen patients (50%) developed local recurrence or metastases. The median DFS was 17.0 months (95% CI = 13.7-20.3). In this study, the 1-year DFS rate was 72%, and the 2-year DFS rate was 37.5%. The median OS was 28.0 months (95% CI = 19.7-36.3), as shown in Figure 1. Using univariate analysis, the technique of lymph node dissection was a predictor for postoperative relapse. The median DFS was 15.0 months in the D1 group and 18.0 months in the D2 group (P = .043), as shown in Figure 2A. No significant difference in DFS was observed on subgroup analyses of other factors such as sex, age, primary site,

histology, differentiation, clinical stage, and cycles of adjuvant chemotherapy received. The median DFS was 28 months in stage I patients, 25.0 months in stage II patients, and 15.0 months in stage III patients (P = .660), as shown in Figure 3A. None of the factors analyzed were significant predictors of OS on univariate analysis. The median OS was 23.0 months (95% CI = 15.3-30.7) in the D1 group and 28.0 months (95% CI = 20.0-36.0) in the D2 group (P = .786), as shown in Figure 2B. The median OS was 29.0 months (95% CI = 26.2-31.8) in the stage II group and 22.3 months (95% CI = 19.5-25.1) in the stage III group (P = .983), as presented in Figure 3B. The most commonly reported

adverse events of any grade were neutropenia (90.6%), nausea (78.1%), vomiting (56.3%), and anemia (53.1%). Most of these toxicities were mild. The only grade 3/4 adverse event that occurred in more than 10% of patients was neutropenia. The Ketotifen most frequent hematologic adverse events were grade 3/4 neutropenia, which occurred in 18 patients (56.3%), and febrile neutropenia, which developed in 4 patients (12.5%). The frequency of anemia was high at 53.13%, but all of these toxicities were grade 1/2. Grade 1/2 thrombocytopenia was recorded in eight patients (25.0%), but no grade 3/4 cases of thrombocytopenia occurred. The most frequent grade 3/4 nonhematologic adverse events were diarrhea (9.4%; n = 3), nausea (6.3%; n = 2), and vomiting (6.3%; n = 2). Cases of peripheral neuropathy were all grade 1/2 (15.6%; n = 5). There were no chemotherapy-related deaths ( Table 3).

Merolectins are composed of a single carbohydrate binding domain and are unable to precipitate glycoconjugates or cause cell agglutination [45]. Hololectins are exclusively composed of carbohydrate binding domains, containing two or more domains and being able to agglutinate cells and/or precipitate glycoconjugates [45]. Finally, chimerolectins are characterized by one or more carbohydrate binding domains and an additional domain responsible for another biological activity

(e.g. chitinase activity) [45]. Due to lectins’ functional plasticity, they are involved in numerous biological processes including defense against pathogens, symbiosis and cell signaling [12]. learn more Among pathogen defense functions, lectins can perform bactericidal [40], fungicidal [40] and [64] and antiviral activities [39]. Indeed, lectins have an enormous potential for developing

novel drugs, pesticides and/or transgenic organisms, since they can bind specifically to carbohydrates normally absent in vertebrates and plants, such as chitin or the bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan carbohydrate. Furthermore, by chitin targeting, several pests can be tackled, since chitin is the main component of the fungal cell wall and also of the exoskeleton of invertebrates, such as nematodes and insects [20] and [43]. Among the lectins, the hevein domain is extremely common, being found in chimerolectins, hololectins and merolectins (Fig. 1) [7]. The name ‘hevein’ was proposed by Archer in 1960 [4], when the first peptide with this domain was isolated from the latex of the rubber see more tree (Hevea brasiliensis). This domain is rarely found in proteins that do not belong to the plant kingdom. As an Fulvestrant solubility dmso exception, a protein containing an hevein domain from the phytopathogenic fungus Magnaporthe grisea was identified by Kamakura et al. [29] (GenBank ID: BAB79692.1). The overall hevein domain

structure is composed of an anti-parallel β-sheet and occasional short helices; the scaffold is stabilized by three to five disulfide bonds [40] and [64]. This structural framework exposes four amino acid residues (one serine and three aromatic) involved in chitin-binding and related oligomers [40] and [64]. The amino acid residues involved are arranged as follows, Xi-Xi+2-Xi+4-Xi+11, where the residue Xi is normally a serine residue and Xi+11, a tyrosine residue; Xi+2 and Xi+4 are normally an aromatic residue. The residues in Xi+2 and Xi+4 stabilize the complex through CH-π stacking. If the residues in Xi+2 and Xi+4 are tyrosine or tryptophan, they also contribute through hydrogen bonds [10]. Although the mechanism of action of hevein-like peptides has not been completely elucidated, it is known that hevein-like peptides are able to inhibit the development of chitin-containing fungi [37] and [40]. This fungicidal activity has been related to its chitin-binding domain, where the cell wall elongation is retarded or stopped after the chitin-binding step.

All the simulated results were generated and click here processed using MATLAB (Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA). The Bloch–McConnell equations for a two-pool model (water and amine protons labeled as pool w and labile, respectively) were used to stimulate z-spectra, assuming a field strength of 4.7 T. A pulsed saturation scheme of 50 Gaussian pulses with flip angle (FA) of 180° and 50% duty cycle (DC) was considered,

where each pulse had total duration 40 ms, Tpd (Gaussian pulse + inter-pulse delay). The saturation was performed from −3.8 to 3.8 ppm (−760 to 760 Hz at 4.7 T) with 0.19 ppm (38 Hz) increments. To model pulsed saturation, the discretization method was used with each Gaussian pulse discretized into 1024 segments. Crusher gradients with alternating

signs, assumed to have been applied during the inter-pulse delays, were modeled by setting the transverse magnetization to zero at the end of the inter-pulse period. The readout was performed after all the Gaussian pulses had been applied. The equivalent AF and AP of the Gaussian pulses were calculated using the following Roxadustat formulas [33]: AF=1/t∗∫0tB1dt and AP=(1/t∗∫0tB12dt), where t is equivalent to the Tpd defined above and B1 is the RF power amplitude. The continuous z-spectrum was simulated using the continuous saturation solution for 2 s, equivalent to the total saturation time of pulsed-CEST (50 pulses × 0.04 s/pulse). The remaining variables in the model were set according to published values: longitudinal relaxation times, T1w = 3 s, T1labile = 1 s; transverse relaxation times, T2w = 60 ms, T2labile = 8.5 ms [34]; amine proton exchange rate, Clabile = 50 s−1; amine proton concentration, Mlabile0 = 0.33 M and water proton concentration, Mw0 = 100 M (equivalent to 0.0033 for the proton concentration ratio,

Mlabile0/Mw0). The computational time required to compute a z-spectrum using the discretization method is correlated with the number of segments used to generate a discrete approximation to the pulse shape. In order to aid the comparison of the discretized and continuous approximation for model fitting, the minimum number of segments, N, required for the former was investigated to minimize the processing time. The pulsed CEST effect depends on the pulsed parameters used (FA, Tpd, DC and pulse shape). A range of parameter values was simulated: FA varied from 60° to 300° with intervals of 60°, Tpd = 20, 40, 80, Oxymatrine 100 and 200 ms, and DC changed from 0.3 to 0.8 with 0.1 increments. The rest of the parameters used were the same as above. The Gaussian pulse was discretized into 2n segments (n = 1 to 10) and the 1024 segment result was used as the benchmark. Root mean square (RMS) error between the spectra generated using the reduced number of segments and the benchmark was calculated; the smallest number of segments which had a normalized RMS error smaller than 0.1%, was chosen as N for that set of pulsed parameters. Tissue-like phantoms were prepared according to Sun et al.

Despite being the commonest severe inherited disorder affecting millions of people worldwide, treatment for SCD remains problematical. As complications of SCD follow from polymerisation of HbS and RBC sickling, there has been considerable effort directed at discovering novel anti-sickling reagents. Many of these have

been designed to interact directly with HbS, to stabilise the oxy conformation (increasing O2 affinity) and to inhibit polymerisation [9], [10] and [11]. Various carbonyl compounds were shown to reduce RBC sickling over forty years ago, with aromatic aldehydes more effective than aliphatic aldehydes [9]. The reactive aldehyde group is thought to form Schiff bases with Hb amino groups, particularly the www.selleckchem.com/products/PLX-4032.html terminal α1val, and thereby increase O2 affinity. Amongst the most potent of the aromatic aldehydes tested was o-vanillin [9] and [30]. Its isomer p-vanillin (vanillin) is also thought Enzalutamide to react with αHis103 to promote the oxy conformation, with possible other interactions at key sites of polymer

contact (βHis116 and βHis117). In vivo, although vanillin itself is poorly absorbed, a pro-drug MX-1520 was shown to protect sickle rats against hypoxia [31]. A number of substituted benzaldehydes, notably 12C79 (also known as BW12C or valerosol) and 589C80 (BWA589C or tucaresol), were also designed to act in a similar manner but with greater binding ability to Hb [32], [33] and [34]. In experiments involving cyclical deoxygenation and re-oxygenation of sickle cells in vitro both were effective in maintaining intracellular K+, high MCV and better deformability [35]. Combination of these benzaldehydes to act via reducing HbS depolymerisation along with direct inhibition of the Gardos channel with clotrimazole and nitrendipine was synergistic in protecting sickle RBCs from shrinkage and K+ loss during episodes

of cyclical deoxygenation [36]. In clinical trials, 12C79 (valerosol) was effective in increasing O2 affinity of Hb both in normal HbAA individuals [37] and SCD patients [38] but had a rather short half life. Although 589C80 (tucaresol) with its longer half life and ability to improve haematological parameters in sickle patients, side-effects Orotidine 5′-phosphate decarboxylase included fever and cervical lymphadenopathy [39]. More recently, attention has turned to other potential anti-sickling reagents. Amongst these are the heterocyclic aldehydes (furanic compounds). They too have a similar action binding to α1val and also probably disrupting a key salt bridge with the C-terminal carboxyl group of arg141α [11]. One of them, 5HMF was found to be several times more potent than vanillin in inhibiting sickling [40]. It also protected sickle mice from hypoxia [11]. These findings are very encouraging and currently, 5HMF is the subject of clinical trials in SCD patients.

stearothermophilus NUB3621,while the chromosome of G. thermocatenulatus GS-1 overlapped less with the G. thermodenitrificans NG80-2 chromosome, which shared 30 orthologous CDSs exclusively. In addition, 775 CDSs from the GS-1 genome were classified as unique. Our genomic data of strain GS-1 will provide a vast pool of genes involved

in hydrocarbon degradation and an excellent platform for further improvement of this organism for potential application in bioremediation of oil-polluted environments. This whole genome sequence project is deposited in DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank under the accession JFHZ00000000. This study was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 81301461, 50974022, and 51074029), 863 Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China (Grant Nos. 2008AA06Z204 and 2013AA064402),

and Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant GDC941 No. LQ13H190002). The authors wish to thank the technical personnel in the oilfield under study, for Osimertinib kindly collecting samples. “
“Extremely halophilic archaea (haloarchaea) require salt for growth and metabolism and can adapt to high salt concentrations. Generally, haloarchaeal genomes contain extrachromosomal elements, such as large megaplasmids or minichromosomes (Capes et al., 2011). Genome sequence analysis is required to understand halophilic archaea, and the analysis of their functional gene information will be important for ecological research and industrialization. Endonuclease To identify potentially useful industrial genes, we analyzed a novel strain in the genus Halapricum (H.) which was recently reported by Song et al. (2014). Halapricum salinum is a halophilic archaeon of the Halobacteriaceae family

within the Halobacteriales order. Haloarchaea are comprised of approximately 40 genera containing more than 150 species ( Parte, 2014). Currently, H. salinum represents the only species belonging to the Halapricum genus ( Song et al., 2014). The H. salinum CBA1105T (= KCTC 4202T, JCM 19729T) was isolated from non-purified solar salt under aerobic conditions at Gomso Bay in the Republic of Korea. The strain grows in 15–30% NaCl (w/v; optimum 20%), at 30–45 °C (optimum 37 °C) and pH 7.0–8.0 (optimum pH 7.0). The strain CBA1105T is Gram-negative, pleomorphic with coccoid or ovoid shape, positive for oxidase activity, and hydrolyzes Tween 20, 40, and 80. Genomic DNA from strain CBA1105T was extracted and purified using a G-spin™ Total DNA Extraction Kit (iNtRON Biotechnology, Seongnam, Korea). Genome sequences were analyzed using an Illumina MiSeq system, according to the manufacturer’s instructions. In total, 2,899,712 reads were generated (with 253-fold coverage of the genome) using CLC Genomics Workbench 7.0.4 analysis software (CLC Bio, Aarhus, Denmark).

ERPs recorded in word onset priming appear to be a promising means for this endeavor. The work was supported by a grant of the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG, FR 2591/1-2) awarded to CF and Brigitte Röder, and a Starting Independent Investigators Grant of the European Research Council (ERC, 209656 Neurodevelopment) awarded to CF. We are grateful to Bianca Hein for assistance in selecting, recording and editing the stimuli and to Axel Wingerath for collecting the data. “
“In Charlifue S, Apple D, Burns SP, Chen D, Cuthbert JP,

Donovan WH, Lammertse DP, Meade MA, Pretz CR. Mechanical ventilation, health and quality of life following spinal BMS-354825 cell line cord injury. Arch Phys

Med Rehabil 2011;92:457-63, an error occurred in the text in the paragraph before the “Purpose of Study” heading: “…77% of ventilator-dependent and 69% of ventilator-independent patients reporting good or excellent QOL.” The sentence should have read: “…77% of those ventilator independent and 69% of those ventilator dependent reporting good or excellent quality of life.” The error did not change any of the basic messages or conclusions. “
“In van den Berg MEE, Castellote JM, Mahillo-Fernandez I, de Pedro-Cuesta J. Incidence of nontraumatic spinal cord injury: a Spanish cohort study (1972-2008). Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2012;93:325-31, the first author’s Sirolimus initials were listed incorrectly in the print version of the article as “MEE.” The correct listing should be “van den Berg MEL. Additionally, the authors regret that an error was made in the Design

section of the Abstract. The text should read: “Design: Population-based case series study between January 1972 and December 2008.” Also, the following text Etoposide clinical trial was omitted from the Acknowledgments: “We would like to thank the staff of the Servet Hospital and especially the medical staff of the SCI Unit at the Rehabilitation Service that facilitated access to information. “
“In Tang W-K, Lu J-Y, Liang H, Chan T-T, Mok V, Ungvari GS, Wong K-S. Is insomnia associated with suicidality in stroke? Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2011;92:2025-7, coauthor, Tse-Ting Chan’s name should read Tsz Ting Chan. “
“On October 1, 2011, the American Board of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, in conjunction with the American Board of Anesthesiology and the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, administered the eighth examination for subspecialization in Pain Medicine. Effective October 1, 2011, the following individuals were certified.

Furthermore, the biological requirements of domesticates and management structures associated with their propagation, tending, and harvesting can greatly influence our understanding of the impact of new species into the Balkans.

2 Prior to extinction in the 17th Century AD, aurochsen (Bos primigenius), ancestors of domestic cattle (Bos taurus) were found extensively across Europe. Aurochsen were most commonly associated with wooded landscapes, feeding primarily on plants such as grasses, leaves, and the branch tips of woody plants, but also likely in more open landscapes ( Clutton-Brock, 1999, Legge and Rowley-Conwy, 1988 and Van Vuure, 2005). The introduction selleck screening library of domesticated cattle to these areas likely had consequences for the wild populations. Although little is known about aurochsen population levels and distribution in the Balkans, introduced domesticated cattle may have competed with wild bovines for food. Once larger herds and agricultural fields became established, spatial segregation would have been greater: grazing areas more controlled, a greater infrastructure

in herd management (fences, barns, etc.) and aurochsen would be relegated into forest foraging niches. Based on stable isotope analyses, Noe-Nygaard et al. (2005) demonstrate that aurochsen in Scandinavia underwent a change in diet from foraging in open grassland settings to forested ecosystems during the Neolithic. Balasse et al. (1997) made a similar argument

for the Neolithic in the Paris Basin. There are some data, therefore, to suggest that the buy PD98059 introduction of domesticated Isotretinoin cattle into Europe shifted the primary foraging areas of aurochsen, allowing them to cohabitate for millennia due to their complementary adaptations. Although data are lacking for the Balkans, it is likely that similar shifts occurred in areas where larger numbers of cattle were kept. Required grazing area, reproduction data, and potential meat and milk production of cattle based on modern, unimproved breeds are presented in Table 3 (based largely on Dyson-Hudson and Dyson-Hudson, 1970, Gregg, 1988 and Russell, 1988; see also McClure et al., 2006, p. 209; Robb, 2007). These data show that on average a single cow requires ca. 1.5 ha (3.7 acres) of pasture (Bakels, 1982) or 1 ha (2.47 acres) of forested land per month for grazing (Bogucki, 1982). Dietary requirements for steers and castrated bulls do not vary too much from those of cattle. Genetic data on modern cattle, old breeds, and archeological samples indicate genetic diversity with the presence of descendants of multiple domestication centers in the Near East and Anatolia, and little if any interbreeding between introduced domesticated cattle and their local wild counterparts (Bradley and Magee, 2006).